HOMEPAGE DEFINITION HISTORY DEVELOPMENT EFFECTS ON IMPLICATIONS STRATEGIES OUR RESEARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY LINKS

HISTORY OF SELF-ESTEEM     Summarised below are the six major contributors to the development of the concept of self-esteem as outlined by Mruk (1995).   1890 William James  American psychologist Studies of self-esteem based on introspection Self-esteem was not a major issue for James and his writings were limited to a few pages Self-esteem is a affective phenomenon ie: it is lived as a feeling or an emotion Self-esteem is a dynamic process affected by successes and failures and thus open to enhancement James saw a connection between self-esteem, values, success and competence 1963 Robert White  A psychoanalytic/psychodynamic approach Like James, White sees self-esteem as a developmental phenomenon but more so in that self-esteem develops gradually being affected by and in turn effecting experience and behaviour Self-esteem has two sources: an internal source (own accomplishments) and external source (affirmations from others) This theory cannot be tested experimentally The notion of competence is central to this approach 1965 Morris Rosenberg  A sociocultural approach Self-esteem is defined as an attitude (either positive or negative) that we have about ourselves Self-esteem is a product of the influences of culture, society, family and interpersonal relationships The amount of self-esteem an individual has in proportional to the degree to which they positively measure up to a core set of self values Rosenberg links self-esteem to anxiety and depression This theory is based on the analysis of data taken from large sample group of 5000 subjects Feelings/beliefs about worthiness are central to this approach 1967 Stanley Coopersmith A behavioural perspective Similar to Rosenburg in that self-esteem is an attitude and and expression of worthiness. It is also linked to anxiety and depression Coopersmith includes success as well as self-worth as an indicator of self-esteem Self-esteem as a construct or an acquired trait, that is, an individual learns how worthy they are initially from parents. This is reinforced by others. The children model the respect and worthiness of self that they see in their parents. Findings drawn from observational techniques in controlled situations as well as case studies and interviews The downfalls of Coopersmith's theory is that is was based on research taken from middle-class white males in childhood and adolescence 1969 Nathaniel Branden  A humanistic view The first person to define self-esteem in terms of worthiness and competence Self-esteem as a basic human need. Lack of it has serious negative consequences ie substance abuse, suicide, anxiety and depression Self-esteem is dynamic in nature Self-esteem is related to our ability to live in such a way as to honour our view of ourselves Competence, sense of personal worth, self confidence and self respect are important to this theory The limitations of this theory are that the findings were based on a philosophy rather than empirical data 1985 Seymour Epstein  Cognitive-experiential view Epstein also considers self-esteem a basic human need -worthiness which motivates us consciously and unconsciously Self-esteem is seen as a consequence of an individual's understanding of the world and others and who we are in relation to them. We strive to maintain an equilibrium of self There are different levels of self-esteem: global (general overall self-esteem); intermediate which is specific to certain domains for example competence, likability or personal power; situational which are the everyday manifestations of self-esteem. Global and intermediate self-esteem affect situational self-esteem The limitations of this theory are that Epstein is more concerned with personality development than self-esteem